In her article, "Compulsory Heterosexuality and Lesbian Experience," Adrienne Rich examines "heterosexuality as a political institution" (Rich 311). Rich, who is one of the most widely read feminists of the 20th century, seeks to break the assumptions that heterosexual, white and middle class people are "normal" and all others, particularly homosexual women, are "abnormal." She opens with two quotes that lay out these widely held assumptions, that women are naturally "sexually oriented only toward men... [and] that the lesbian is simply acting out of her bitterness toward men" (312). She argues that this belief invalidates woman homosexuality and as a result, removes the lesbian perspective of so many women from feminist theory and literature (312). Furthermore, Rich maintains that heterosexuality as the "norm" must be thought of as a social phenomenon brought about by political institutions and that there must be a revolution to undo this structure (313).
First, Rich points to patriarchy and male power in society as an institution that seeks to keep women in a submissive position, unmoveable and silenced. She cites many examples of how men work to keep women down from Kathleen Gough's article "The Origin of the Family," including "to deny women [their own] sexuality"; "[to force it [male sexuality] upon them"; "to command or exploit their labor to control their produce"; "to control or rob them of their children"; "to confine them physically and prevent their movement"; "to use them as objects in male transactions"; "to cramp their creativeness"; and "to withhold from them large areas of the society's knowledge and cultural attainments" (Gough 69-70). She explains that all these actions work to maintain male power and priviledge within a patriarchal institution (316). Moreover, she explains that denying lesbian relationships is another way this power is maintained. Lesbians throughout history and under this institution have been marginalized and pinpointed as "alternative" and "different" from the "norm," that is, heterosexual. While Rich advocates for the eradication of the submission of women, she urges this cannot be done if homosexual feminists are silenced or pushed aside. All women must lose these assumptions to gain openness and understanding (317).
Rich also introduces a lesbian continuum, and says lesbian existence is a range which includes all women-identified existence (317). While the clinical view of lesbianism has been limited, according to Rich, lesbian experience should include all female bonding, friendship and comradery. She says that patriarchal institutions have denied women access to this comradeship, stigmatizing all women-idenity as lesbian, other, deviant, alternative. Citing history, Rich points to many celebrated and intellectual women who have rejected the so-called "norm" of heterosexual marriage. She explains that the work of many of these women has been "undervalued" as society sees the authors as "man haters" (321). However, if we look at their lives and work, we will understand that "women have always resisted male tyranny" (321). If we look at their lives, we can identify with this refusal of patriarchy and truly embark on a revolution. We can also see women who have married and see that this choice was no choice at all, but instead a "duty" and a "fulfillment" of the norm (322).
Rich concludes that the lie of compulsory heterosexuality keeps women "trapped," "closeted," with "broken connections" and no access to self-understanding (323). Under this way of thinking, lesbians are "condemned to an even more devastating outsiderhood than their outsiderhood as women" (323). Rather than judge whether heterosexual or homosexual relationships are better or worse, good or bad, we must instead open up the choice for all to decide what is right for themselves (325). Without a choice, the institution will continue and patriarchy will continue to exert its control.
Laurel Gilbert in her article "You're Not the Type," explains how Adrienne Rich inspired her to be true to herself as a lesbian. Gilbert, who experienced her first lesbian relationship when she was fifteen, later had sex with a boy just because her lesbian crush Kris did. "He was the only link between us," she says, and that since she and Kris could not have intercourse directly, sex with a boy would be the only way for the pair to express their deep connection to one another (Gilbert 75). Later, Gilbert found herself pregnant in a small town in Utah, something not at all rare, however still taboo and condemned. While her guidance counselor told her she should forget her dreams of staying in school and obtaining a college degree, others in her life, like her drama teacher, encouraged her to continue striving for the goals she had before giving birth. Gilbert eventually graduated from college and obtained her Ph.D. while raising her daughter as a single mother. She "became a real enigma" (82). And after reading Adrienne Rich and other lesbian feminists, Gilbert began to understand her own desires as a lesbian and as a woman. Instead of adhering to those messages that she was "not the type," she later walked through life proclaiming "I'm just the type" (83).
Abra Fortune Chernik also discovered herself as a woman, comfortable in her own skin- she just found it on the brink of death. Chernik developed an eating disorder after puberty changed her body from its frail, boyish shape to curvy and fleshy. Obsessed with conforming to the sterotype that is feminine beauty, Chernik devoted her life to exercising, counting calories, skipping meals, binge eating and purging. While Chernik was dying of starvation and malnutrition, society was applauding her dropped weight. Even in rehab, Chernik was obsessed with staying thin. Slowly dying, she found herself on a break from the hospital at the mall. When she had her body fat tested at a fitness store, the bodybuilder in the storefront congratulated her for having only 10% body fat (Chernik 106). Chernik began to realize how backwards society's messages are: obsess over weight, change your body while risking your health and you will be rewarded and congratulated. Slowly, Chernik let go of her physical ideals and decided to break free, working hard to gain weight and feel comfortable in her own body as a woman. Instead of adhering to the silencing society forces on women to stay small, she decided she would rise above. Unfortunately, just when Chernik began to feel full, she realized she was alone, surrounded by other women who were hollow, empty, and just as obsessed as she once was (109). Chernik argues that as women "we must claim our bodies as our own to love and honor in their infinite shapes and sizes" (110). We must deny society's expectations and overcome its powerful message instead of devoting our lives to countless hours that could be spent doing much more meaningful activity.
Finally, in the article "Toward a Global History of Same-Sex Sexuality," author Leila Rupp looks at same-sex sexuality from a global viewpoint (Rupp 287). She explains how same-sex sexuality means different things at different times and in different places and by exploring it throughout history we can avoid the assumptions we have adopted today (287). She points to many differences that exist within same-sex relationships, including age, class and gender differences (288). Citing history, Rupp explains how same-sex sexuality in ancient Athens was determined by age (older men with younger men) and age also dictated of what these relationships consisted (288). Also, in Japan, age was signified through dress and hair, which also signified how sexual relationships played out (289). Moreover in cultures in new Guinea, rituals were in place that institutionalized boy insemination (290). In all of these examples, Rupp explains that the people of these cultures took on different roles because they were prescribed by institutions. These were social constructs to which the people followed.
Furthermore, transgendered relationships have existed throughout history, according to Rupp. For North American natives, for example, two-spirited roles were commonplace, in which males took female names and even gave birth (291). These transgendered roles also existed in Polynesian societies and in India (292). In India, hijras were born hermaphrodites or intersexual and were sexually impotent with women (292). Dressing and acting as women, these people had ceremonial functions, but were despised (292). Women also took on roles as men in many societies, including in early modern Europe when women dressed as women and worked in typically male-dominated fields (293). In these examples, Rupp points out, the sexual relations between two people of the same sex are "better defined as different-gender than same-sex relations" (293). Countless examples show that these different-gender relationships are perceived in different ways according to each culture (294). Rupp believes that the modern use of the the term "same-sex relations" is perhaps Western and related to those who identify as gay or lesbian without labeling themselves by age, class or gender (295).
Next, Rupp argues that "sexuality" itself is a modern concept, since throughout history sexual acts were not necessarily connected with sexuality, but with power or ritual (295). She raises the question: "are certain acts associated with specific forms of relationships?" (295). For example, is intercourse simply sex, a sign of power and domination, as it was in the past? In Bathoso society, when women kiss and engage in what we would in the U.S. consider lesbian sexual acts really sexual if no penis is involved (296)? Is intercourse necessary? Are male and female genitals both necessary? What, Rupp asks, constitutes a sexual act?
Rupp continues that since we do not have much history of what constitutes a sexual act, whether it must include a penis, and what female-to-female sexual acts have been like throughout history, we can not evaluate what counts as sex between women (297). Some historical accounts show that touching of the breasts is a sexual act, others show that genital contact constitutes lesbian sex, while others show a combination of both. Furthermore, potentially sexual acts among friends throughout history have proven to be difficult to classify (300). While Rupp does not pretend to have answers to these difficult questions posed, she does proclaim that they are important to research. Same-sex relationships and sexual acts among people of the same sex are determined by historical context and cultural institutions. Moreover, they are influenced by class, race, gender, age and many other categories that define who we are (302).
Chernik, Abra Fortune. "The Body Politic." in Listen Up by Barbara Findlen. Emeryville: Seal Press, 1995.
Gilbert, Laurel. "You're Not the Type." in Listen Up by Barbara Findlen. Emeryville: Seal Press, 1995.
Gough, Kathleen. "The Origin of the Family." in Feminism In Our Time by Miriam Schneir. Toronto: Random House, Inc., 1994.
Rich, Adrienne. "Compulsory Heterosexuality and Lesbian Existence." in Feminism In Our Time by Miriam Schneir. Toronto: Random House, Inc., 1994.
Rupp, Leila J. "Toward a Global History of Same-Sex Sexuality."
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